Comparisons.SQLiteVSDoublets (русская версия)

Comparison of SQLite and LinksPlatform's Doublets (links) on basic embedded database operations with links and object-like structures.

Based on examples from https://github.com/FahaoTang/dotnetcore-examples and https://github.com/Konard/LinksPlatform

Benchmarks

Rust (doublets and rusqlite with bundled SQLite) and C# (Platform.Data.Doublets, Platform.Data.Doublets.Sequences and the providers Microsoft.Data.Sqlite and System.Data.SQLite) run the same workloads on the same deterministic data, with 32 bit (u32/uint) and 64 bit (u64/ulong) ids:

• Links: SQLite stores the table links(id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, "from", "to") with the indices ("from", "to") and ("to", "from"); Doublets stores the links themselves. The operations are create, read all, read by id, search by (from, to), read by from, read by to, update (swap from and to) and delete.
• Objects: blog posts with a title, content and publication date. SQLite stores the table blog_posts(id, title, content, publication_date); Doublets stores every post as links, with strings as sequences of Unicode symbols, like Platform.Data.Doublets.Sequences does. The operations are create, read all, read by id and delete. Every Doublets store runs with and without a cache of the string sequences (Cached/Uncached).

Storages: SQLite in memory and in a file; Doublets united (one array of links with index trees) and split (separate data and index arrays), each volatile (in memory) and non-volatile (in memory-mapped files). Doublets are compared with SQLite of the same durability: volatile with SQLite Memory, non-volatile with SQLite File.

C# also runs SystemDataSQLite_Memory and SystemDataSQLite_File with System.Data.SQLite 2.0.4. SQLite_Memory and SQLite_File use Microsoft.Data.Sqlite. Both providers use the same schemas, parameterized commands, immediate transactions and native e_sqlite3 library supplied by Microsoft.Data.Sqlite, on Linux, macOS and Windows. The JSON reports record each provider and engine version in sqlite_providers. The System.Data.SQLite rows compare with Microsoft.Data.Sqlite of the same durability. Published tables from older runs include only the providers measured in those runs; the next Benchmarks run adds the new rows.

C# object benchmarks also support PostgreSQL_EFCore using Npgsql.EntityFrameworkCore.PostgreSQL. Set POSTGRESQL_CONNECTION_STRING to include it in the default object comparison; embedded benchmarks work without a PostgreSQL server. Explicitly selecting it without configuration fails with a setup message. Both id widths use the same deterministic posts, scattered point reads, validated operations, warm-ups and transaction boundaries as the other object stores. EF saves one post at a time, clears tracking after each save, reads without tracking and deletes by id. Each warm-up and repetition creates and drops its own generated schema; the database and other schemas remain intact. The configured user needs permission to connect and create schemas in a benchmark database.

PostgreSQL is a server database and EF Core adds ORM and network costs. Its row shows absolute timings without an embedded-storage speed ratio. server_bytes measures the benchmark table, indexes and TOAST storage after creation, shown in a separate server-relations column; it excludes shared WAL, server memory and local client files. JSON and generated tables record PostgreSQL, Npgsql EF Core and EF Core versions. Existing published measurements stay intact. CI adds a pinned PostgreSQL service to each C# object benchmark job so all compared variants still run on the same machine. Set POSTGRESQL_VERBOSE=1 to log EF diagnostics to stderr; logging is off by default and sensitive values are disabled.

Every repetition runs on a fresh store in an empty directory, after discarded warm-up repetitions on up to 10,000 records that run for at least a second, so the .NET JIT has already optimized the code. Each operation is one timed transaction over all records, point operations visit the records in a scattered order, and each result is checked against the expected count and order-sensitive checksum, so a storage that loses, duplicates or mixes up records fails the run instead of being reported as fast. Repetitions are 3,000,000 / size for links and 500,000 / size for objects, clamped to 1..=10. The tables show the median time per operation; a difference is reported only if the interquartile ranges (the middle half) of the repetitions do not overlap and the medians differ by more than 5%, otherwise it is ≈ same. The file size is measured after creation; Doublets files are preallocated memory-mapped files, so small stores show the preallocation size.

Each results group includes linear and logarithmic charts. Linear charts raise bars below 0.5% of the panel maximum for visibility; the tables retain exact times. Provenance records the Doublets library and Rust compiler or .NET SDK versions used for that run. Older reports without this metadata identify it as missing rather than attributing current toolchains to past measurements.

Every table is measured by its own GitHub Actions job, with all variants on the same runner, so that a difference is never a difference between machines, by the Benchmarks workflow: links with 100,000, 1,000,000 and 10,000,000 records and objects with 100,000 and 1,000,000 records. These are the largest sizes that fit into the 6 hour limit of a job: one SQLite File repetition on 100,000,000 links did not finish in 4.5 hours (run 37228604862), and 1,000,000 blog posts already take an hour in C#. Pull requests check the whole pipeline on 1,000 records, and pushes to main update the results below. The workflow can also be started manually with other sizes.

Run locally:

mkdir -p results
cargo run --release --manifest-path rust/Cargo.toml -- \
  links 64 100000 --output results/links-rust-64-100000.json
dotnet run -c Release --project csharp/SQLiteVSDoublets -- \
  objects 32 1000 --variants SQLite_File,Doublets_Split_NonVolatile_Cached
dotnet run -c Release --project csharp/SQLiteVSDoublets -- \
  links 64 1000 --repetitions 3 \
  --variants SQLite_Memory,SystemDataSQLite_Memory \
  --output results/links-csharp-64-1000.json
python3 scripts/benchmark_provenance.py results/links-rust-64-100000.json \
  --toolchain "$(rustc --version)"
python3 scripts/benchmark_provenance.py results/links-csharp-64-1000.json \
  --toolchain ".NET SDK $(dotnet --version)"
# print the tables, add --readme README.md --charts docs/benchmarks to update
python3 scripts/benchmark_report.py results

Run a bounded PostgreSQL comparison:

docker run -d --name benchmark-postgres -p 127.0.0.1:5432:5432 \
  -e POSTGRES_USER=benchmark -e POSTGRES_PASSWORD=benchmark \
  -e POSTGRES_DB=benchmark postgres:18.3
export POSTGRESQL_CONNECTION_STRING='Host=127.0.0.1;Database=benchmark;Username=benchmark;Password=benchmark'
dotnet run -c Release --project csharp/SQLiteVSDoublets -- \
  objects 64 1000 --repetitions 3 \
  --variants SQLite_Memory,SQLite_File,PostgreSQL_EFCore \
  --output results/objects-csharp-64-1000.json
python3 scripts/benchmark_report.py results
python3 experiments/postgresql/check_reports.py
docker stop benchmark-postgres
docker rm benchmark-postgres

Notes:

• The split stores of doublets 0.5.0 (Rust) lose a link that is updated to reference itself, so the benchmark updates a link to (0, 0) first, which is the state links are created in (experiments/split_store_delete).
• The stores of doublets 0.5.0 (Rust) take the part of the memory that platform-mem 0.3.0 returns after growing it for the whole memory, so a store fails after 1,040,384 links; the benchmarks wrap the memory in memory::Whole, which returns the whole memory (experiments/unit_store_growth).
• In C#, links are deleted with Delete(id, handler: null), which resets the link before deleting it; the bare Delete(id) leaves the link in the index trees, and later searches fail (experiments/csharp_tree_delete).
• The C# united stores use AVL index trees: the default size balanced trees degenerate when many links share a source or a target, which makes each blog post creation linear in the number of posts (experiments/csharp_objects_profile).
• The C# split stores keep the default linked list of the internal sources, which doublets 0.5.0 (Rust) does not have; it makes the C# updates faster and the other operations take about the same time (experiments/csharp_split_linked_list).
• Objects stores use external references for numbers and Unicode symbols, so raw values never collide with link ids.
• Reading a string without the cache walks its sequence link by link; in C# each GetSource/GetTarget call of Platform.Data allocates a handler and a list, which makes the uncached C# reads much slower than the Rust ones.

Doublets vs SQLite as storage for links

Rust doublets vs SQLite

32 bit address/id space benchmarks

100,000 links

10 repetitions after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.2; doublets 0.5.0; rustc 1.99.0 (b940084d7 2026-09-28). Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, AMD EPYC 7763 64-Core Processor, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-06.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Search (from, to)	Read by from	Read by to	Update	Delete	File size
SQLite Memory	1.71 µs	130 ns	605 ns	728 ns	764 ns	768 ns	3.17 µs	2.06 µs	—
SQLite File	2.06 µs	135 ns	624 ns	766 ns	796 ns	802 ns	10.5 µs	5.2 µs	4.4 MiB
Doublets United Volatile	427 ns (4.01× faster)	1.77 ns (73.2× faster)	4.32 ns (140× faster)	170 ns (4.29× faster)	224 ns (3.42× faster)	238 ns (3.23× faster)	1.09 µs (2.9× faster)	428 ns (4.82× faster)	—
Doublets United NonVolatile	442 ns (4.66× faster)	1.88 ns (71.9× faster)	4.3 ns (145× faster)	185 ns (4.13× faster)	237 ns (3.36× faster)	244 ns (3.29× faster)	1.14 µs (9.25× faster)	440 ns (11.8× faster)	32.0 MiB
Doublets Split Volatile	94.9 ns (18× faster)	3.74 ns (34.7× faster)	3.79 ns (160× faster)	52.6 ns (13.8× faster)	27.5 ns (27.8× faster)	28.7 ns (26.7× faster)	157 ns (20.2× faster)	557 ns (3.7× faster)	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile	97.7 ns (21.1× faster)	3.74 ns (36.2× faster)	3.94 ns (158× faster)	54.5 ns (14.1× faster)	28.6 ns (27.9× faster)	29.9 ns (26.8× faster)	165 ns (63.8× faster)	587 ns (8.86× faster)	40.0 MiB

1,000,000 links

3 repetitions after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.2; doublets 0.5.0; rustc 1.99.0 (b940084d7 2026-09-28). Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, AMD EPYC 7763 64-Core Processor, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-06.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Search (from, to)	Read by from	Read by to	Update	Delete	File size
SQLite Memory	2.23 µs	126 ns	782 ns	917 ns	935 ns	937 ns	5.64 µs	3.66 µs	—
SQLite File	5.82 µs	131 ns	1.96 µs	1.89 µs	1.92 µs	1.91 µs	18.6 µs	10.4 µs	48.2 MiB
Doublets United Volatile	632 ns (3.53× faster)	1.91 ns (66.2× faster)	14.1 ns (55.6× faster)	301 ns (3.04× faster)	405 ns (2.31× faster)	413 ns (2.27× faster)	1.79 µs (3.15× faster)	663 ns (5.52× faster)	—
Doublets United NonVolatile	718 ns (8.11× faster)	2.16 ns (60.7× faster)	18.7 ns (105× faster)	379 ns (4.99× faster)	479 ns (4× faster)	480 ns (3.98× faster)	2.08 µs (8.93× faster)	719 ns (14.5× faster)	32.0 MiB
Doublets Split Volatile	129 ns (17.3× faster)	3.86 ns (32.8× faster)	19.9 ns (39.2× faster)	124 ns (7.42× faster)	89.2 ns (10.5× faster)	85.4 ns (11× faster)	384 ns (14.7× faster)	1.01 µs (3.63× faster)	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile	167 ns (34.9× faster)	3.92 ns (33.4× faster)	23.1 ns (85.1× faster)	151 ns (12.5× faster)	93.8 ns (20.4× faster)	99.2 ns (19.3× faster)	435 ns (42.7× faster)	1.16 µs (8.96× faster)	40.0 MiB

10,000,000 links

1 repetition after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.2; doublets 0.5.0; rustc 1.99.0 (b940084d7 2026-09-28). Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, AMD EPYC 7763 64-Core Processor, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-07.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Search (from, to)	Read by from	Read by to	Update	Delete	File size
SQLite Memory	3.46 µs	128 ns	1.4 µs	1.52 µs	1.47 µs	1.49 µs	8.9 µs	6.5 µs	—
SQLite File	9.43 µs	131 ns	2.32 µs	2.64 µs	2.6 µs	2.54 µs	23.3 µs	14.2 µs	501.0 MiB
Doublets United Volatile	1.67 µs (2.07× faster)	2.19 ns (58.6× faster)	33.5 ns (41.8× faster)	1.11 µs (1.37× faster)	1.39 µs (1.06× faster)	1.47 µs (≈ same)	6.24 µs (1.43× faster)	2.61 µs (2.5× faster)	—
Doublets United NonVolatile	2.21 µs (4.27× faster)	2.37 ns (55.5× faster)	32.7 ns (70.9× faster)	1.12 µs (2.35× faster)	1.43 µs (1.82× faster)	1.35 µs (1.88× faster)	6.65 µs (3.51× faster)	2.8 µs (5.05× faster)	320.0 MiB
Doublets Split Volatile	304 ns (11.4× faster)	3.88 ns (33.1× faster)	31.2 ns (44.9× faster)	238 ns (6.39× faster)	174 ns (8.44× faster)	172 ns (8.7× faster)	765 ns (11.6× faster)	2.64 µs (2.46× faster)	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile	444 ns (21.2× faster)	3.9 ns (33.7× faster)	32.7 ns (70.9× faster)	242 ns (10.9× faster)	177 ns (14.7× faster)	178 ns (14.3× faster)	759 ns (30.8× faster)	2.91 µs (4.87× faster)	400.0 MiB

64 bit address/id space benchmarks

100,000 links

10 repetitions after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.2; doublets 0.5.0; rustc 1.99.0 (b940084d7 2026-09-28). Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, Intel(R) Xeon(R) Platinum 8370C CPU @ 2.80GHz, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-06.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Search (from, to)	Read by from	Read by to	Update	Delete	File size
SQLite Memory	1.56 µs	107 ns	551 ns	621 ns	670 ns	670 ns	3.05 µs	2.04 µs	—
SQLite File	1.77 µs	110 ns	571 ns	661 ns	704 ns	705 ns	7.49 µs	3.98 µs	4.4 MiB
Doublets United Volatile	476 ns (3.27× faster)	2.89 ns (36.8× faster)	6.43 ns (85.6× faster)	205 ns (3.03× faster)	267 ns (2.51× faster)	271 ns (2.47× faster)	1.31 µs (2.33× faster)	505 ns (4.04× faster)	—
Doublets United NonVolatile	509 ns (3.48× faster)	3.59 ns (30.5× faster)	7.13 ns (80.1× faster)	225 ns (2.94× faster)	279 ns (2.52× faster)	277 ns (2.54× faster)	1.38 µs (5.44× faster)	508 ns (7.84× faster)	64.0 MiB
Doublets Split Volatile	109 ns (14.2× faster)	3.65 ns (29.2× faster)	6.23 ns (88.4× faster)	64.9 ns (9.56× faster)	38.9 ns (17.2× faster)	40.6 ns (16.5× faster)	200 ns (15.2× faster)	659 ns (3.1× faster)	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile	113 ns (15.7× faster)	3.84 ns (28.6× faster)	6.73 ns (84.8× faster)	67.5 ns (9.79× faster)	42.2 ns (16.7× faster)	42.5 ns (16.6× faster)	210 ns (35.7× faster)	719 ns (5.54× faster)	80.0 MiB

1,000,000 links

3 repetitions after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.2; doublets 0.5.0; rustc 1.99.0 (b940084d7 2026-09-28). Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, AMD EPYC 9V74 80-Core Processor, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-06.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Search (from, to)	Read by from	Read by to	Update	Delete	File size
SQLite Memory	2 µs	99.8 ns	738 ns	811 ns	907 ns	840 ns	6.25 µs	4 µs	—
SQLite File	5.57 µs	99.2 ns	1.75 µs	1.68 µs	1.7 µs	1.69 µs	18.6 µs	10.6 µs	48.2 MiB
Doublets United Volatile	854 ns (2.34× faster)	2.07 ns (48.2× faster)	22.2 ns (33.3× faster)	527 ns (1.54× faster)	662 ns (1.37× faster)	742 ns (1.13× faster)	3.12 µs (2× faster)	1.05 µs (3.82× faster)	—
Doublets United NonVolatile	1.09 µs (5.13× faster)	1.88 ns (52.8× faster)	24.4 ns (71.6× faster)	669 ns (2.51× faster)	893 ns (1.9× faster)	926 ns (1.82× faster)	3.68 µs (5.06× faster)	1.21 µs (8.74× faster)	64.0 MiB
Doublets Split Volatile	216 ns (9.25× faster)	3.66 ns (27.3× faster)	23.6 ns (31.3× faster)	181 ns (4.49× faster)	133 ns (6.81× faster)	142 ns (5.92× faster)	495 ns (12.6× faster)	1.32 µs (3.04× faster)	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile	236 ns (23.6× faster)	4.13 ns (24× faster)	25.4 ns (68.6× faster)	194 ns (8.62× faster)	141 ns (12× faster)	146 ns (11.5× faster)	531 ns (35.1× faster)	1.57 µs (6.73× faster)	80.0 MiB

10,000,000 links

1 repetition after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.2; doublets 0.5.0; rustc 1.99.0 (b940084d7 2026-09-28). Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, AMD EPYC 9V45 96-Core Processor, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-06.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Search (from, to)	Read by from	Read by to	Update	Delete	File size
SQLite Memory	2.85 µs	67.5 ns	1.26 µs	1.35 µs	1.28 µs	1.29 µs	8.98 µs	6.54 µs	—
SQLite File	6.56 µs	69.1 ns	1.51 µs	1.8 µs	1.72 µs	1.74 µs	16.6 µs	10 µs	501.0 MiB
Doublets United Volatile	2.33 µs (1.23× faster)	1.89 ns (35.7× faster)	24.4 ns (51.5× faster)	1.31 µs (≈ same)	1.48 µs (1.16× slower)	1.47 µs (1.14× slower)	6.13 µs (1.47× faster)	2.68 µs (2.44× faster)	—
Doublets United NonVolatile	3.06 µs (2.14× faster)	1.89 ns (36.5× faster)	25.6 ns (59× faster)	1.52 µs (1.18× faster)	1.88 µs (1.09× slower)	1.87 µs (1.07× slower)	8.08 µs (2.05× faster)	3.46 µs (2.9× faster)	640.0 MiB
Doublets Split Volatile	416 ns (6.84× faster)	2.74 ns (24.6× faster)	25.1 ns (50.1× faster)	267 ns (5.06× faster)	152 ns (8.42× faster)	156 ns (8.33× faster)	702 ns (12.8× faster)	3.02 µs (2.16× faster)	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile	625 ns (10.5× faster)	2.63 ns (26.3× faster)	26.4 ns (57.2× faster)	268 ns (6.69× faster)	146 ns (11.8× faster)	151 ns (11.5× faster)	710 ns (23.3× faster)	3.65 µs (2.74× faster)	800.0 MiB

C# doublets vs SQLite

32 bit address/id space benchmarks

100,000 links

10 repetitions after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.3; Platform.Data.Doublets 0.18.1; .NET SDK 10.0.401. Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, AMD EPYC 9V45 96-Core Processor, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-06.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Search (from, to)	Read by from	Read by to	Update	Delete	File size
SQLite Memory	1.45 µs	306 ns	733 ns	882 ns	946 ns	952 ns	2.56 µs	1.71 µs	—
SQLite File	1.92 µs	313 ns	765 ns	905 ns	977 ns	977 ns	8.93 µs	4.56 µs	4.4 MiB
SystemDataSQLite Memory	1.53 µs (1.06× slower)	183 ns (1.67× faster)	859 ns (1.17× slower)	1.02 µs (1.16× slower)	1.06 µs (1.12× slower)	1.05 µs (1.11× slower)	2.69 µs (1.05× slower)	1.88 µs (1.1× slower)	—
SystemDataSQLite File	1.81 µs (≈ same)	187 ns (1.68× faster)	854 ns (1.12× slower)	1.01 µs (1.12× slower)	1.06 µs (1.08× slower)	1.02 µs (≈ same)	8.45 µs (≈ same)	4.37 µs (≈ same)	4.4 MiB
Doublets United Volatile	595 ns (2.44× faster)	7.36 ns (41.5× faster)	27.8 ns (26.4× faster)	146 ns (6.03× faster)	232 ns (4.08× faster)	182 ns (5.23× faster)	1.31 µs (1.95× faster)	633 ns (2.71× faster)	—
Doublets United NonVolatile	638 ns (3.01× faster)	7.59 ns (41.2× faster)	29 ns (26.4× faster)	151 ns (5.98× faster)	250 ns (3.92× faster)	192 ns (5.1× faster)	1.34 µs (6.67× faster)	647 ns (7.05× faster)	32.0 MiB
Doublets Split Volatile	108 ns (13.4× faster)	6.87 ns (44.5× faster)	34.4 ns (21.3× faster)	54.3 ns (16.2× faster)	49.6 ns (19.1× faster)	47.6 ns (20× faster)	127 ns (20.2× faster)	152 ns (11.3× faster)	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile	148 ns (13× faster)	7.07 ns (44.2× faster)	34.8 ns (22× faster)	55.5 ns (16.3× faster)	50.6 ns (19.3× faster)	49.9 ns (19.6× faster)	131 ns (68.2× faster)	147 ns (30.9× faster)	40.0 MiB

1,000,000 links

3 repetitions after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.3; Platform.Data.Doublets 0.18.1; .NET SDK 10.0.401. Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, AMD EPYC 7763 64-Core Processor, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-06.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Search (from, to)	Read by from	Read by to	Update	Delete	File size
SQLite Memory	3.34 µs	380 ns	1.64 µs	1.83 µs	1.86 µs	1.9 µs	7.88 µs	5.65 µs	—
SQLite File	7.07 µs	387 ns	2.82 µs	2.88 µs	2.91 µs	2.94 µs	21.3 µs	12.1 µs	48.2 MiB
SystemDataSQLite Memory	3.33 µs (≈ same)	317 ns (1.2× faster)	1.89 µs (1.15× slower)	2.15 µs (1.18× slower)	2.18 µs (1.17× slower)	2.22 µs (1.17× slower)	7.26 µs (1.08× faster)	5.09 µs (1.11× faster)	—
SystemDataSQLite File	7.06 µs (≈ same)	322 ns (1.2× faster)	3.01 µs (1.07× slower)	3.12 µs (1.08× slower)	3.18 µs (1.09× slower)	3.16 µs (1.08× slower)	20.7 µs (≈ same)	12.1 µs (≈ same)	48.2 MiB
Doublets United Volatile	1.73 µs (1.93× faster)	15.1 ns (25.2× faster)	97.2 ns (16.9× faster)	573 ns (3.19× faster)	705 ns (2.64× faster)	807 ns (2.36× faster)	4.25 µs (1.85× faster)	1.89 µs (2.99× faster)	—
Doublets United NonVolatile	1.75 µs (4.05× faster)	14.8 ns (26.2× faster)	107 ns (26.4× faster)	628 ns (4.58× faster)	777 ns (3.75× faster)	765 ns (3.84× faster)	4.59 µs (4.65× faster)	1.98 µs (6.12× faster)	32.0 MiB
Doublets Split Volatile	323 ns (10.3× faster)	11.3 ns (33.7× faster)	134 ns (12.3× faster)	263 ns (6.95× faster)	215 ns (8.66× faster)	219 ns (8.7× faster)	584 ns (13.5× faster)	505 ns (11.2× faster)	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile	381 ns (18.6× faster)	11.4 ns (34.1× faster)	144 ns (19.6× faster)	290 ns (9.94× faster)	221 ns (13.2× faster)	223 ns (13.2× faster)	608 ns (35.1× faster)	495 ns (24.5× faster)	40.0 MiB

10,000,000 links

1 repetition after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.3; Platform.Data.Doublets 0.18.1; .NET SDK 10.0.401. Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, AMD EPYC 7763 64-Core Processor, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-07.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Search (from, to)	Read by from	Read by to	Update	Delete	File size
SQLite Memory	4.06 µs	381 ns	1.89 µs	2.22 µs	2.2 µs	2.19 µs	9.48 µs	6.29 µs	—
SQLite File	10.1 µs	383 ns	2.95 µs	3.46 µs	3.39 µs	3.38 µs	25.1 µs	15.6 µs	501.0 MiB
SystemDataSQLite Memory	3.96 µs (≈ same)	310 ns (1.23× faster)	2.17 µs (1.15× slower)	2.49 µs (1.12× slower)	2.45 µs (1.11× slower)	2.4 µs (1.1× slower)	8.99 µs (1.05× faster)	6.09 µs (≈ same)	—
SystemDataSQLite File	10.4 µs (≈ same)	315 ns (1.22× faster)	3.19 µs (1.08× slower)	3.74 µs (1.08× slower)	3.62 µs (1.07× slower)	3.63 µs (1.07× slower)	25.6 µs (≈ same)	15.8 µs (≈ same)	501.0 MiB
Doublets United Volatile	3.05 µs (1.33× faster)	14.6 ns (26.2× faster)	157 ns (12× faster)	1.1 µs (2.02× faster)	1.26 µs (1.74× faster)	1.04 µs (2.09× faster)	6.78 µs (1.4× faster)	3.22 µs (1.95× faster)	—
Doublets United NonVolatile	3.81 µs (2.66× faster)	14.5 ns (26.3× faster)	181 ns (16.3× faster)	1.37 µs (2.52× faster)	1.83 µs (1.86× faster)	1.66 µs (2.04× faster)	8.9 µs (2.82× faster)	4.32 µs (3.62× faster)	320.0 MiB
Doublets Split Volatile	452 ns (8.99× faster)	14.1 ns (26.9× faster)	259 ns (7.29× faster)	395 ns (5.62× faster)	287 ns (7.65× faster)	310 ns (7.06× faster)	784 ns (12.1× faster)	646 ns (9.74× faster)	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile	796 ns (12.7× faster)	14.2 ns (27.1× faster)	316 ns (9.34× faster)	475 ns (7.29× faster)	328 ns (10.3× faster)	345 ns (9.81× faster)	903 ns (27.8× faster)	750 ns (20.8× faster)	400.0 MiB

64 bit address/id space benchmarks

100,000 links

10 repetitions after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.3; Platform.Data.Doublets 0.18.1; .NET SDK 10.0.401. Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, AMD EPYC 7763 64-Core Processor, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-06.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Search (from, to)	Read by from	Read by to	Update	Delete	File size
SQLite Memory	2.45 µs	397 ns	1.15 µs	1.44 µs	1.48 µs	1.48 µs	4.16 µs	2.8 µs	—
SQLite File	2.78 µs	400 ns	1.16 µs	1.46 µs	1.48 µs	1.5 µs	11.8 µs	6.11 µs	4.4 MiB
SystemDataSQLite Memory	2.58 µs (1.05× slower)	331 ns (1.2× faster)	1.43 µs (1.25× slower)	1.74 µs (1.21× slower)	1.78 µs (1.2× slower)	1.74 µs (1.17× slower)	4.1 µs (≈ same)	3.02 µs (1.08× slower)	—
SystemDataSQLite File	2.91 µs (≈ same)	336 ns (1.19× faster)	1.43 µs (1.23× slower)	1.75 µs (1.19× slower)	1.77 µs (1.19× slower)	1.74 µs (1.16× slower)	11.8 µs (≈ same)	6.34 µs (≈ same)	4.4 MiB
Doublets United Volatile	1.19 µs (2.06× faster)	21.8 ns (18.2× faster)	75.7 ns (15.2× faster)	257 ns (5.61× faster)	366 ns (4.05× faster)	263 ns (5.62× faster)	2.38 µs (1.75× faster)	1.16 µs (2.42× faster)	—
Doublets United NonVolatile	1.21 µs (2.3× faster)	22.1 ns (18.1× faster)	73.3 ns (15.9× faster)	271 ns (5.4× faster)	383 ns (3.88× faster)	283 ns (5.29× faster)	2.43 µs (4.85× faster)	1.19 µs (5.15× faster)	64.0 MiB
Doublets Split Volatile	197 ns (12.4× faster)	11.4 ns (34.7× faster)	81.9 ns (14× faster)	111 ns (13× faster)	85.2 ns (17.4× faster)	85.5 ns (17.3× faster)	221 ns (18.8× faster)	284 ns (9.84× faster)	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile	271 ns (10.3× faster)	11.8 ns (33.9× faster)	82.3 ns (14.1× faster)	119 ns (12.3× faster)	94.1 ns (15.8× faster)	92 ns (16.3× faster)	235 ns (50.1× faster)	265 ns (23× faster)	80.0 MiB

1,000,000 links

3 repetitions after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.3; Platform.Data.Doublets 0.18.1; .NET SDK 10.0.401. Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, AMD EPYC 7763 64-Core Processor, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-06.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Search (from, to)	Read by from	Read by to	Update	Delete	File size
SQLite Memory	3.12 µs	379 ns	1.63 µs	1.77 µs	1.83 µs	1.78 µs	7.61 µs	5.07 µs	—
SQLite File	6.83 µs	383 ns	2.71 µs	2.79 µs	2.82 µs	2.76 µs	20.7 µs	11.7 µs	48.2 MiB
SystemDataSQLite Memory	3.26 µs (≈ same)	319 ns (1.19× faster)	1.68 µs (≈ same)	2.12 µs (1.2× slower)	2.16 µs (1.18× slower)	2.08 µs (1.17× slower)	7.31 µs (≈ same)	5.25 µs (≈ same)	—
SystemDataSQLite File	7.06 µs (≈ same)	323 ns (1.19× faster)	2.99 µs (1.1× slower)	3.15 µs (1.13× slower)	3.14 µs (1.11× slower)	3.15 µs (1.14× slower)	20.7 µs (≈ same)	12 µs (≈ same)	48.2 MiB
Doublets United Volatile	2.4 µs (1.3× faster)	22.4 ns (17× faster)	151 ns (10.8× faster)	837 ns (2.11× faster)	957 ns (1.91× faster)	1.08 µs (1.64× faster)	5.79 µs (1.31× faster)	2.51 µs (2.02× faster)	—
Doublets United NonVolatile	2.4 µs (2.85× faster)	22.4 ns (17.1× faster)	169 ns (16.1× faster)	876 ns (3.18× faster)	1.07 µs (2.65× faster)	1.05 µs (2.63× faster)	6.08 µs (3.4× faster)	2.64 µs (4.45× faster)	64.0 MiB
Doublets Split Volatile	389 ns (8.04× faster)	12 ns (31.5× faster)	209 ns (7.82× faster)	361 ns (4.89× faster)	270 ns (6.78× faster)	274 ns (6.47× faster)	687 ns (11.1× faster)	592 ns (8.56× faster)	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile	500 ns (13.7× faster)	12.7 ns (30.1× faster)	249 ns (10.9× faster)	404 ns (6.91× faster)	295 ns (9.55× faster)	305 ns (9.07× faster)	706 ns (29.3× faster)	596 ns (19.7× faster)	80.0 MiB

10,000,000 links

1 repetition after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.3; Platform.Data.Doublets 0.18.1; .NET SDK 10.0.401. Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, AMD EPYC 7763 64-Core Processor, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-07.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Search (from, to)	Read by from	Read by to	Update	Delete	File size
SQLite Memory	4.64 µs	379 ns	2.14 µs	2.37 µs	2.44 µs	2.37 µs	10.1 µs	7.03 µs	—
SQLite File	10.3 µs	380 ns	2.92 µs	3.38 µs	3.34 µs	3.29 µs	25.6 µs	15.8 µs	501.0 MiB
SystemDataSQLite Memory	3.95 µs (1.17× faster)	315 ns (1.2× faster)	2.16 µs (≈ same)	2.53 µs (1.07× slower)	2.47 µs (≈ same)	2.49 µs (≈ same)	9.09 µs (1.11× faster)	6.42 µs (1.09× faster)	—
SystemDataSQLite File	10.6 µs (≈ same)	320 ns (1.18× faster)	3.29 µs (1.12× slower)	3.83 µs (1.13× slower)	3.75 µs (1.12× slower)	3.74 µs (1.14× slower)	25.6 µs (≈ same)	15.9 µs (≈ same)	501.0 MiB
Doublets United Volatile	3.46 µs (1.34× faster)	13.7 ns (27.8× faster)	182 ns (11.7× faster)	1.34 µs (1.77× faster)	1.5 µs (1.62× faster)	1.75 µs (1.36× faster)	8.91 µs (1.14× faster)	4.2 µs (1.67× faster)	—
Doublets United NonVolatile	4.53 µs (2.27× faster)	21.8 ns (17.4× faster)	187 ns (15.6× faster)	1.33 µs (2.55× faster)	1.75 µs (1.91× faster)	1.61 µs (2.05× faster)	9.66 µs (2.65× faster)	5.09 µs (3.1× faster)	640.0 MiB
Doublets Split Volatile	468 ns (9.91× faster)	14.6 ns (25.9× faster)	310 ns (6.89× faster)	452 ns (5.23× faster)	329 ns (7.41× faster)	346 ns (6.85× faster)	920 ns (11× faster)	728 ns (9.66× faster)	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile	1.29 µs (7.96× faster)	12.9 ns (29.5× faster)	339 ns (8.61× faster)	493 ns (6.85× faster)	347 ns (9.6× faster)	357 ns (9.23× faster)	1.21 µs (21.1× faster)	874 ns (18× faster)	800.0 MiB

Doublets vs SQLite as storage for objects

Rust doublets vs SQLite

32 bit address/id space benchmarks

100,000 blog posts

5 repetitions after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.2; doublets 0.5.0; rustc 1.99.0 (b940084d7 2026-09-28). Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, AMD EPYC 9V74 80-Core Processor, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-06.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Delete	File size
SQLite Memory	1.02 µs	515 ns	1.26 µs	1.59 µs	—
SQLite File	4.77 µs	544 ns	2.25 µs	15.7 µs	78.3 MiB
Doublets United Volatile Cached	3.94 µs (3.86× slower)	1.03 µs (1.99× slower)	1.48 µs (1.17× slower)	4 µs (2.51× slower)	—
Doublets United Volatile Uncached	64.7 µs (63.3× slower)	7.3 µs (14.2× slower)	8.13 µs (6.45× slower)	3.97 µs (2.49× slower)	—
Doublets United NonVolatile Cached	4.27 µs (1.12× faster)	1.04 µs (1.91× slower)	1.59 µs (1.41× faster)	4.54 µs (3.45× faster)	32.0 MiB
Doublets United NonVolatile Uncached	65.8 µs (13.8× slower)	7.48 µs (13.7× slower)	8.55 µs (3.8× slower)	5.16 µs (3.04× faster)	32.0 MiB
Doublets Split Volatile Cached	2.52 µs (2.47× slower)	553 ns (1.07× slower)	521 ns (2.42× faster)	2.07 µs (1.3× slower)	—
Doublets Split Volatile Uncached	25.7 µs (25.1× slower)	10.6 µs (20.5× slower)	10.9 µs (8.67× slower)	2.33 µs (1.46× slower)	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile Cached	2.72 µs (1.76× faster)	577 ns (1.06× slower)	552 ns (4.08× faster)	2.77 µs (5.65× faster)	40.0 MiB
Doublets Split NonVolatile Uncached	25.9 µs (5.43× slower)	10.6 µs (19.5× slower)	11 µs (4.91× slower)	2.68 µs (5.85× faster)	40.0 MiB

1,000,000 blog posts

1 repetition after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.2; doublets 0.5.0; rustc 1.99.0 (b940084d7 2026-09-28). Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, AMD EPYC 9V74 80-Core Processor, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-06.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Delete	File size
SQLite Memory	1.11 µs	517 ns	1.82 µs	2.5 µs	—
SQLite File	5.33 µs	522 ns	3.37 µs	14.7 µs	783.2 MiB
Doublets United Volatile Cached	6.33 µs (5.69× slower)	1.28 µs (2.48× slower)	2.84 µs (1.56× slower)	10.4 µs (4.14× slower)	—
Doublets United Volatile Uncached	75.3 µs (67.8× slower)	7.47 µs (14.5× slower)	9.37 µs (5.15× slower)	10 µs (4.01× slower)	—
Doublets United NonVolatile Cached	7.23 µs (1.36× slower)	1.26 µs (2.42× slower)	2.86 µs (1.18× faster)	10.4 µs (1.42× faster)	320.0 MiB
Doublets United NonVolatile Uncached	81.5 µs (15.3× slower)	7.58 µs (14.5× slower)	9.31 µs (2.76× slower)	10.4 µs (1.42× faster)	320.0 MiB
Doublets Split Volatile Cached	4.15 µs (3.74× slower)	732 ns (1.42× slower)	946 ns (1.93× faster)	6.03 µs (2.41× slower)	—
Doublets Split Volatile Uncached	26.5 µs (23.8× slower)	10.8 µs (21× slower)	11.9 µs (6.53× slower)	5.77 µs (2.3× slower)	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile Cached	5.44 µs (≈ same)	721 ns (1.38× slower)	875 ns (3.85× faster)	6.24 µs (2.36× faster)	400.0 MiB
Doublets Split NonVolatile Uncached	28.6 µs (5.36× slower)	11.2 µs (21.5× slower)	12.2 µs (3.63× slower)	6.38 µs (2.31× faster)	400.0 MiB

64 bit address/id space benchmarks

100,000 blog posts

5 repetitions after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.2; doublets 0.5.0; rustc 1.99.0 (b940084d7 2026-09-28). Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, AMD EPYC 7763 64-Core Processor, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-06.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Delete	File size
SQLite Memory	1.25 µs	568 ns	1.5 µs	1.83 µs	—
SQLite File	2 µs	638 ns	2.45 µs	6.92 µs	78.3 MiB
Doublets United Volatile Cached	5.04 µs (4.04× slower)	1.39 µs (2.45× slower)	2.16 µs (1.44× slower)	5.91 µs (3.22× slower)	—
Doublets United Volatile Uncached	94.8 µs (76× slower)	10 µs (17.6× slower)	10.9 µs (7.29× slower)	6.12 µs (3.33× slower)	—
Doublets United NonVolatile Cached	5.23 µs (2.62× slower)	1.4 µs (2.19× slower)	2.06 µs (1.19× faster)	5.53 µs (1.25× faster)	64.0 MiB
Doublets United NonVolatile Uncached	95.9 µs (48× slower)	10.1 µs (15.8× slower)	11 µs (4.49× slower)	5.55 µs (1.25× faster)	64.0 MiB
Doublets Split Volatile Cached	3.32 µs (2.66× slower)	740 ns (1.3× slower)	572 ns (2.63× faster)	2.94 µs (1.6× slower)	—
Doublets Split Volatile Uncached	48.3 µs (38.7× slower)	13.9 µs (24.5× slower)	14.3 µs (9.52× slower)	2.99 µs (1.63× slower)	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile Cached	3.58 µs (1.79× slower)	761 ns (1.19× slower)	583 ns (4.2× faster)	3.36 µs (2.06× faster)	80.0 MiB
Doublets Split NonVolatile Uncached	47.8 µs (23.9× slower)	14 µs (22× slower)	14.7 µs (6× slower)	3.68 µs (1.88× faster)	80.0 MiB

1,000,000 blog posts

1 repetition after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.2; doublets 0.5.0; rustc 1.99.0 (b940084d7 2026-09-28). Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, AMD EPYC 9V45 96-Core Processor, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-06.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Delete	File size
SQLite Memory	891 ns	491 ns	1.67 µs	2.39 µs	—
SQLite File	5.32 µs	395 ns	2.68 µs	11.5 µs	783.2 MiB
Doublets United Volatile Cached	6.22 µs (6.97× slower)	1.6 µs (3.25× slower)	3.36 µs (2.02× slower)	12.9 µs (5.39× slower)	—
Doublets United Volatile Uncached	61.6 µs (69.1× slower)	6.43 µs (13.1× slower)	9.16 µs (5.5× slower)	13.1 µs (5.48× slower)	—
Doublets United NonVolatile Cached	8.68 µs (1.63× slower)	1.58 µs (4× slower)	3.54 µs (1.32× slower)	13.2 µs (1.14× slower)	640.0 MiB
Doublets United NonVolatile Uncached	67 µs (12.6× slower)	6.71 µs (17× slower)	8.65 µs (3.22× slower)	13.3 µs (1.15× slower)	640.0 MiB
Doublets Split Volatile Cached	4.61 µs (5.17× slower)	709 ns (1.44× slower)	1.01 µs (1.65× faster)	8.56 µs (3.58× slower)	—
Doublets Split Volatile Uncached	30 µs (33.6× slower)	8.3 µs (16.9× slower)	8.96 µs (5.38× slower)	9.2 µs (3.85× slower)	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile Cached	7.89 µs (1.48× slower)	714 ns (1.81× slower)	1.11 µs (2.41× faster)	8.69 µs (1.33× faster)	800.0 MiB
Doublets Split NonVolatile Uncached	33.3 µs (6.25× slower)	8.45 µs (21.4× slower)	9.25 µs (3.45× slower)	8.96 µs (1.29× faster)	800.0 MiB

C# doublets vs SQLite

32 bit address/id space benchmarks

100,000 blog posts

5 repetitions after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.3; Platform.Data.Doublets 0.18.1; .NET SDK 10.0.401. Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, AMD EPYC 7763 64-Core Processor, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-07. PostgreSQL 18.3 (Debian 18.3-1.pgdg13+1); Npgsql.EntityFrameworkCore.PostgreSQL 10.0.3.0; EF Core 10.0.4.0.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Delete	File size	Server relations
PostgreSQL EFCore	667 µs	4.47 µs	321 µs	298 µs	—	80.3 MiB
SQLite Memory	5.14 µs	3.9 µs	5.43 µs	2.54 µs	—	—
SQLite File	5.86 µs	4.01 µs	6.44 µs	8.05 µs	78.3 MiB	—
SystemDataSQLite Memory	4.81 µs (1.07× faster)	3.78 µs (≈ same)	5.61 µs (≈ same)	2.18 µs (1.17× faster)	—	—
SystemDataSQLite File	5.84 µs (≈ same)	3.87 µs (≈ same)	6.56 µs (≈ same)	7.8 µs (≈ same)	78.3 MiB	—
Doublets United Volatile Cached	18 µs (3.5× slower)	10.3 µs (2.65× slower)	5.04 µs (1.08× faster)	9.55 µs (3.76× slower)	—	—
Doublets United Volatile Uncached	176 µs (34.2× slower)	294 µs (75.5× slower)	299 µs (55.1× slower)	10 µs (3.94× slower)	—	—
Doublets United NonVolatile Cached	19.8 µs (3.37× slower)	10.9 µs (2.71× slower)	5.36 µs (1.2× faster)	11.2 µs (1.39× slower)	32.0 MiB	—
Doublets United NonVolatile Uncached	179 µs (30.5× slower)	300 µs (74.8× slower)	300 µs (46.6× slower)	9.79 µs (1.22× slower)	32.0 MiB	—
Doublets Split Volatile Cached	10.1 µs (1.96× slower)	11.4 µs (2.92× slower)	4.65 µs (1.17× faster)	6.08 µs (2.39× slower)	—	—
Doublets Split Volatile Uncached	105 µs (20.5× slower)	365 µs (93.6× slower)	368 µs (67.8× slower)	6.04 µs (2.37× slower)	—	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile Cached	11.1 µs (1.89× slower)	11.3 µs (2.82× slower)	4.68 µs (1.38× faster)	6.49 µs (1.24× faster)	40.0 MiB	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile Uncached	106 µs (18× slower)	366 µs (91.2× slower)	367 µs (57× slower)	6.74 µs (1.2× faster)	40.0 MiB	—

1,000,000 blog posts

1 repetition after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.3; Platform.Data.Doublets 0.18.1; .NET SDK 10.0.401. Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, Intel(R) Xeon(R) 6973P-C, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-07. PostgreSQL 18.3 (Debian 18.3-1.pgdg13+1); Npgsql.EntityFrameworkCore.PostgreSQL 10.0.3.0; EF Core 10.0.4.0.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Delete	File size	Server relations
PostgreSQL EFCore	348 µs	8.56 µs	194 µs	288 µs	—	802.9 MiB
SQLite Memory	3.65 µs	3.03 µs	4.91 µs	3.05 µs	—	—
SQLite File	7.59 µs	3 µs	5.46 µs	18.5 µs	783.2 MiB	—
SystemDataSQLite Memory	3.5 µs (≈ same)	2.98 µs (≈ same)	5.11 µs (≈ same)	3.27 µs (1.07× slower)	—	—
SystemDataSQLite File	7.31 µs (≈ same)	3.13 µs (≈ same)	6.02 µs (1.1× slower)	25.6 µs (1.38× slower)	783.2 MiB	—
Doublets United Volatile Cached	19.3 µs (5.28× slower)	10.7 µs (3.53× slower)	6.68 µs (1.36× slower)	18.1 µs (5.93× slower)	—	—
Doublets United Volatile Uncached	186 µs (51× slower)	284 µs (93.7× slower)	248 µs (50.4× slower)	12.5 µs (4.09× slower)	—	—
Doublets United NonVolatile Cached	24.7 µs (3.26× slower)	9.13 µs (3.05× slower)	5.8 µs (1.06× slower)	15.7 µs (1.18× faster)	320.0 MiB	—
Doublets United NonVolatile Uncached	198 µs (26.1× slower)	266 µs (88.9× slower)	250 µs (45.8× slower)	14.8 µs (1.25× faster)	320.0 MiB	—
Doublets Split Volatile Cached	10.6 µs (2.9× slower)	11.1 µs (3.67× slower)	6.11 µs (1.24× slower)	8.63 µs (2.83× slower)	—	—
Doublets Split Volatile Uncached	95 µs (26× slower)	316 µs (104× slower)	331 µs (67.4× slower)	9.75 µs (3.19× slower)	—	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile Cached	19.8 µs (2.61× slower)	11.5 µs (3.84× slower)	6.16 µs (1.13× slower)	11.2 µs (1.66× faster)	400.0 MiB	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile Uncached	122 µs (16× slower)	361 µs (121× slower)	309 µs (56.7× slower)	9.24 µs (2× faster)	400.0 MiB	—

64 bit address/id space benchmarks

100,000 blog posts

5 repetitions after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.3; Platform.Data.Doublets 0.18.1; .NET SDK 10.0.401. Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, Intel(R) Xeon(R) 6973P-C, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-07. PostgreSQL 18.3 (Debian 18.3-1.pgdg13+1); Npgsql.EntityFrameworkCore.PostgreSQL 10.0.3.0; EF Core 10.0.4.0.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Delete	File size	Server relations
PostgreSQL EFCore	364 µs	3.4 µs	189 µs	165 µs	—	80.3 MiB
SQLite Memory	4.11 µs	3.54 µs	4.66 µs	1.93 µs	—	—
SQLite File	8.15 µs	3.6 µs	5.13 µs	17.9 µs	78.3 MiB	—
SystemDataSQLite Memory	4.06 µs (≈ same)	3.39 µs (≈ same)	5.04 µs (1.08× slower)	2.19 µs (1.13× slower)	—	—
SystemDataSQLite File	8.65 µs (≈ same)	3.44 µs (≈ same)	5.29 µs (≈ same)	21 µs (≈ same)	78.3 MiB	—
Doublets United Volatile Cached	18.5 µs (4.5× slower)	10.6 µs (2.99× slower)	4.82 µs (≈ same)	13.1 µs (6.78× slower)	—	—
Doublets United Volatile Uncached	160 µs (38.9× slower)	314 µs (88.7× slower)	320 µs (68.7× slower)	12.7 µs (6.59× slower)	—	—
Doublets United NonVolatile Cached	17.9 µs (2.19× slower)	9.87 µs (2.75× slower)	4.62 µs (1.11× faster)	14 µs (≈ same)	64.0 MiB	—
Doublets United NonVolatile Uncached	157 µs (19.3× slower)	298 µs (82.8× slower)	305 µs (59.5× slower)	14.4 µs (≈ same)	64.0 MiB	—
Doublets Split Volatile Cached	9.64 µs (2.35× slower)	11.2 µs (3.18× slower)	4.19 µs (1.11× faster)	5.73 µs (2.96× slower)	—	—
Doublets Split Volatile Uncached	107 µs (26× slower)	361 µs (102× slower)	373 µs (80× slower)	6.37 µs (3.3× slower)	—	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile Cached	9.73 µs (1.19× slower)	10.6 µs (2.96× slower)	4 µs (1.28× faster)	5.22 µs (3.44× faster)	80.0 MiB	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile Uncached	102 µs (12.5× slower)	328 µs (91.3× slower)	350 µs (68.4× slower)	6.39 µs (2.8× faster)	80.0 MiB	—

1,000,000 blog posts

1 repetition after a warm-up, median time per operation. SQLite 3.53.3; Platform.Data.Doublets 0.18.1; .NET SDK 10.0.401. Ubuntu 24.04.5 LTS, AMD EPYC 7763 64-Core Processor, 4 cores, 16 GiB, GitHub Actions run on 2026-10-07. PostgreSQL 18.3 (Debian 18.3-1.pgdg13+1); Npgsql.EntityFrameworkCore.PostgreSQL 10.0.3.0; EF Core 10.0.4.0.

Storage	Create	Read all	Read by id	Delete	File size	Server relations
PostgreSQL EFCore	663 µs	5.73 µs	330 µs	332 µs	—	802.9 MiB
SQLite Memory	5.54 µs	4.31 µs	6.1 µs	2.92 µs	—	—
SQLite File	7.6 µs	4.4 µs	7.8 µs	12.2 µs	783.2 MiB	—
SystemDataSQLite Memory	5.35 µs (≈ same)	4.24 µs (≈ same)	6.51 µs (1.07× slower)	2.86 µs (≈ same)	—	—
SystemDataSQLite File	7.8 µs (≈ same)	4.32 µs (≈ same)	8.28 µs (1.06× slower)	12.6 µs (≈ same)	783.2 MiB	—
Doublets United Volatile Cached	23.7 µs (4.28× slower)	13.9 µs (3.21× slower)	6.72 µs (1.1× slower)	18.4 µs (6.29× slower)	—	—
Doublets United Volatile Uncached	223 µs (40.3× slower)	410 µs (95× slower)	412 µs (67.6× slower)	17.7 µs (6.07× slower)	—	—
Doublets United NonVolatile Cached	33.3 µs (4.38× slower)	14.2 µs (3.22× slower)	7.06 µs (1.11× faster)	19.2 µs (1.57× slower)	640.0 MiB	—
Doublets United NonVolatile Uncached	250 µs (33× slower)	412 µs (93.6× slower)	414 µs (53× slower)	19.4 µs (1.59× slower)	640.0 MiB	—
Doublets Split Volatile Cached	13.2 µs (2.38× slower)	12.9 µs (3× slower)	7.15 µs (1.17× slower)	12.2 µs (4.17× slower)	—	—
Doublets Split Volatile Uncached	117 µs (21.1× slower)	377 µs (87.3× slower)	380 µs (62.4× slower)	12 µs (4.12× slower)	—	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile Cached	22.9 µs (3.01× slower)	13.1 µs (2.98× slower)	7.72 µs (≈ same)	13.6 µs (1.12× slower)	800.0 MiB	—
Doublets Split NonVolatile Uncached	137 µs (18× slower)	378 µs (85.8× slower)	378 µs (48.4× slower)	13.9 µs (1.14× slower)	800.0 MiB	—

Conclusions

Each comparison uses SQLite of matching durability and the same noise rule as the tables. Counts span the measured variants, sizes and id widths; they are not an overall speed ranking. RAM usage is not measured.

• Rust, links: 186 faster, 4 slower, 2 approximately equal Doublets operation comparisons with SQLite.
• C#, links: 192 faster, 0 slower, 0 approximately equal Doublets operation comparisons with SQLite.
• Rust, objects: 27 faster, 100 slower, 1 approximately equal Doublets operation comparisons with SQLite.
• C#, objects: 16 faster, 108 slower, 4 approximately equal Doublets operation comparisons with SQLite.